How to Choose Jewellry For the Right Period

Emmalia Harrington
3 days ago
17 min read

This is the last article I write for Foundations Revealed before the magazine closed. Please enjoy.

Introduction

History enthusiasts of all types have experienced these scenarios. Getting immersed into a fun show, movie or other event, only to get pulled out by a modern detail. White diamond jewelry from The Tudors or Reign are a prime example. Diamond cuts during this period created dark gems.[i] Another issue is assembling the perfect outfit from the skin out, choosing the fiber, colour, and sewing techniques best for you… but you can’t find the right accessories.

Jewellery can be a ‘make-or-break’ aspect of an ensemble. It can elevate the whole look, turning a movie or reenactment costume into a complete outfit. Unfortunately, if it doesn’t fit with the rest of the attire, it can become a distraction. My aim in this article is to give an overview of major trends in historical jewellery, to help you better assess recreations and antiques you may come across, and choose what to pair with your clothing.

Covering jewellery of every period and place could make a series of textbooks. To keep things simple, we are limiting our scope to the 18^th and 19^th centuries. I will not be strict with starting at 1700 and ending in 1899, but focusing on stylistic eras. Likewise, we will concentrate on Western styles. I will try to highlight jewellery meant for women and men both.

In addition to discussion design periods, I will also touch upon related topics including popular diamond cuts, paste, and jewellery types. There will also be suggestions on what to look for when buying or recreating a specific aesthetic.

Period Paste Jewellery

When considering historical jewellery, one of the biggest concerns for reenactors and costume designers alike is budget. Not everyone can afford the magnificent items often seen in portraits and museum collections, especially if you’ve already spent most of your costume budget on the clothing itself. However, jewellery doesn't have to be a luxury just be out of reach! Then, like now, not everyone who wanted diamond, sapphire or other costly gems could afford them, and lots of people found ways to simulate real gemstones with less expensive materials. Common modern workarounds include plastic, acrylic, cubic zirconia, and other synthetic jewels – but if you want an extra period touch, you can also look into simulants, or simulated gemstones, that were actually used in the era you’re representing.

Glass as a simulant has been popular for a very long time, possibly since glass was invented. It can be molded, faceted, dyed, painted, and backed with other materials to mimic a wide range of jewels. Glass simulants are sometimes referred to as ‘paste,’ a type of glass with a high lead content.[ii] This extra ingredient makes the final ‘gemstone’ even brighter.[iii]

One piece of jewellery from the Metropolitan Museum of Art features paste doing double duty as a simulant. The brooch features dozens of colourless glass pieces faceted and mounted as diamond substitutes. Four other gems are shaped as cabochons and either coloured red, or backed with red foil to emulate rubies.

Another period glass jewel is opalescent glass, also known as opaline. This material is tinted a hazy white or pale blue and was a popular Georgian substitute for opal. A look though the Victoria and Albert Museum’s jewellery collection shows quite a few pieces of opaline jewellery from the late 18^th century.[iv] The image below is from The Metropolitan Museum of Art.

Rhinestones may or may not be glass. They get their name from the Rhine River in Germany, where rock crystal was collected and cut to mimic diamonds. Over time the term shifted to include paste both plain or backed with foil or silvered to increase luster.[v] For people looking for paste to dress up their late 1890s attire, Daniel Swarovski established his namesake company in 1895.[vi] Depending on the design, Swarovski rhinestones fall under period embellishments. Your best bet are rhinestones with outlines akin to a rounded square.

In seventeenth century France, a rosary maker developed essence d’orient. This mixture blends varnish and iridescent fish scales to mimic pearls’ luster. When painted onto glass beads, they create faux pearls far more realistic than previous paste pearls. Similar techniques are still used today when creating pearl simulants.[vii] Actual pearls are much cheaper and readily available now than they were in period. You may still prefer wearing vintage or reproduction jewellery with paste pearls due to cost or to protect fragile pearls from wear and tear.

Jewellery Pieces Then and Now

Jewellery, like clothing, experiences trends and shifts in popular taste. Certain types seem perennial, like rings or necklaces. Others seem relegated to antiquity or niche wear.

Pieces like necklaces, rings, earrings, bracelets, brooches need little introduction. People have been wearing these types of jewellery for centuries, if not longer. Designs may change, such as length, polish, clasp styles, and so on. The overall concept of wearing jewellery around your neck, finger, from your ears or on your clothing, stays the same.

Parures are also known as suites or jewellery sets. Just a person enjoys wearing coordinating clothing components, the same can be said for jewellery. A set consists of two or more pieces, like a necklace, earrings or brooches with matching elements like colour, jewels or motif. Parures fade in and out of popularity, but the appeal of harmonizing looks means they never fully disappear.

Fobs, watch chains, pocket watches, and related items are atypical forms of jewellery today.

The rise of the wristwatch and the later ubiquity of cell phones with built in clocks helped reduce pocket watch popularity. Casual modern clothing, including a dearth of pockets in women’s attire, is another factor. Fobs originally referred to a waistcoat pocket, then to small items stored in said pocket, such as seals or watches. These pocket objects were often attached to decorative chain, ribbon, or similar items, known as fob chains.[viii] Over time, watches were stored in various items of clothing. The tiny fifth pocket in jeans were initially for watches.[ix]

In an age where unpleasant odors were thought to cause disease, accessories like vinaigrettes protected one’s health. These items took the form of small, decorative containers which held fragrant vinegars. Perforated covers helped scents waft out.[x] Examples from the Victoria and Albert Museum range from the 17^th century to as late as 1886.[xi] The one below is from the Cooper Hewitt Museum.

Chatelaines are a combined decorative item, toolkit, and status symbol.[xii] At their simplest they are a hook or clasp worn at the waist, with several chains at different lengths. These chains may hold anything from keys, scissors, watches, writing tools, mirrors, utility knives or anything else the wearer needed. At their fanciest, they can be gold confections adorned with enamel, paintings or jewels.

Georgian Jewellery

The Georgian period is named for a string of British kings named George, and lasted from 1714 to 1837. There is no one look to Georgian jewellery. Multiple design eras occurred during this time, including rococo and neoclassical styles.

Among the characteristic looks of the period is deep yellow, which extended from clothing and furnishings, to both the gemstones and metals used in jewellery. Gold alloys had high amounts of the precious metal, with 18 karats at the lowest.[xiii] An alternative alloy was Pinchbeck metal, a type of brass with a copper content of about 90%.[xiv] Pinchbeck metal was popular with those with a limited budget or were concerned about theft of costly items.

Popular forms of jewellery in the Georgian period varied by gender and income. Some pieces like vinaigrettes and shoe buckles spanned genders and social classes. Other items such as fobs were the purview of men, as were knee buckles matching those on their shoes.[xv] Women of multiple social stations wore chatelaines. Posher women also enjoyed brooches, elaborate hanging earrings, and parures.[xvi]

Sparkle from Brazil

For centuries, India was the sole source of diamonds. By the early 1700s, Indian diamonds were getting fewer and fewer in the western market. Then gold prospectors in Minas Gerais, Brazil uncovered diamonds.[xvii]

The influx of new diamonds, combined with the burgeoning industrial revolution, led to a new type of diamond cut.[xviii] The old mine cut was faceted to reflect prismatic light from inside the stone, as well as white light. Costumers looking for simulants resembling old mine cuts should look for stones with an outline between squares, rectangles, circles, and ovals. These are known today as cushion cuts.

The rose cut was another popular diamond cut throughout most of the Georgian period, fading around the nineteenth century. These jewels have a flat bottom and a series of facets leading to a pointed top. A variation known as the double rose cut had peaked tops and bottoms.[xix] Both rose cuts displayed more brilliance, or internal white light, than previous diamond cuts.

Rococo

Rococo art flourished from about 1730 to 1770. The aesthetic gets its name from ‘rocaille,’ a motif resembling eroded rocks, shells or waves. Other popular themes included asymmetry, ‘s’ and ‘c’ shapes, and other flourishes which paired well with freehand art. Stylized depictions of nature were also popular, especially acanthus leaves.[xx]

Rococo design originated in Italy, before migrating to France, England, then America. In each country, the style changed slightly. American rococo focused on scrollwork, shells, plants, and animals. Their ornamentation was also symmetrical. [xxi] French natural motifs were stylized, while British artisans favored realistic looks.[xxii]

Most rococo jewellery was functional. A necklace was unlikely to boast acanthus leaves, but a chatelaine might sport asymmetrical embossing. Costumers who want rococo style jewellery and accessories may also want to consider vinaigrettes, etuis, and other small but useful cases.

Neoclassical

The archeological discoveries of Herculaneum in 1738 and Pompeii in 1748 awoke an interest in ancient Greek and Roman art and imagery.[xxiii] Travelogues and tours to the Mediterranean further whetted neoclassical tastes.[xxiv] The aesthetic emphasized simplicity and harmony, and spanned the mid-18^th century to the early 19^th century.

There were few direct copies of ancient Greek and Roman jewellery during this period. Design inspiration more often came from architecture, carved reliefs, and statues. Common motifs included geometric shapes, vases, urns, and portraits.[xxv]

This pendant of William Ponsonby (1704–1793) exemplifies several neoclassical trends. One is the cameo carving, emulating reliefs of old. It is cut from an onyx, popular for cameo art. Ponsonby is depicted in white, like an unearthed statue, sporting a neo-Roman hairstyle. The overall pendant is oval, one of the in vogue geometric looks.[xxvi]

Portrait Miniatures

Tiny wearable portraits were popular throughout the Georgian era. They adorned everyday items from watches to snuff boxes, as well as jewellery of all kinds. Loren Dearborn’s 2009 article on Foundations Revealed goes into more detail, and provides instructions into creating your own with modern techniques. [xxvii]

In period, what mediums making up the portraits varied. Watercolours on ivory were typical, as were enamel on copper from 1750 onward.[xxviii] Disintegrated hair mixed with gum Arabic was also used on ivory, often for mourning portraits.[xxix]

Lover’s Eyes

This take on portrait miniatures consists of a close-up of a person’s eye, often painted on a white background. The images were then placed into rings, lockets, and other accessories with high visibility. The first known lover’s eye appeared in 1785, when the then-Prince of Wales sent a portrait of his eye to his then-mistress, Mrs. Maria Fitzherbert, before marrying her in secret a month later. The match was considered illegal under British law. He was the soon-to-be head of the Anglican church and she was a twice-widowed Catholic. The marriage didn’t last – but the trend for lover’s eye portraits enjoyed a heyday from around 1790 to 1820, serving as tokens of illicit romance.[xxx]

Costumers with posh late Georgian attire may want to consider lover’s eye jewellery to add intrigue to their appearance. Depending on what frames the eye, your accessory can convey other messages as well. A lover’s eye surrounded by coral stood for protection, garnets friendship, diamonds longevity, and pearls represented tears.[xxxi]

Romantic Era

Romanticism spanned from the late eighteenth century to the mid nineteenth century. The movement rejected rational thought, order, and calm in favor of emotion, imagination, individuality, spontaneity, and related traits.[xxxii] Nature was revered as unpredictable and uncontrollable.[xxxiii] The medieval and gothic were also admired.[xxxiv]

These ideals effected visual arts. Popular topics included landscapes, natural disasters, ruins, distant locales and their inhabitants, and portraits emphasizing the subject's psychological state. Jewellery during this time followed similar aesthetics.

Examples from the 1830s through 1840s include elaborate confections such as an amethyst brooch filled with tiny metal flowers and leaves. Other looks include bracelets with rows of glass beads which come together as floral mosaics. A patient costumer may wish to create their own bracelets inspired by this style.

Medieval and Renaissance Influences

While the neoclassical period adored ancient Greece and Rome, the romantic era turned to a less distant past. Medieval and renaissance art tied well with the romantic love of mysteries and the exotic. Ruins and ‘maim’d antiques’ were also revered as nature triumphing over human creations.[xxxv] Centuries old jewellery renovated for a more romantic look or new pieces designed with a medieval or renaissance flavor were both in vogue. Renaissance jewellery specifically remained popular through the 1890s.[xxxvi]

A costumer with reproduction medieval or renaissance jewellery may repurpose them for romantic or early Victorian accessories. Some pieces, like ouches, girdles, and pomanders, are unlikely to be a one-to-one translation into romantic jewellery. Things like necklaces and bracelets would be easier to reuse. Someone with a little extra time can try adapting their earlier period jewellery, like converting an ouch into a temporary pendant.

Those who want to purchase or make their own renaissance style Victorian jewellery should keep an eye out for certain motifs. Crosses and mythological figures were popular, as were cameo and intaglio carvings. Grotesques, hybrids of human, animal, and plant, also appeared in jewellery.[xxxvii]

In terms of materials, gold, diamonds, pearls, sapphires, rubies, and emeralds added colour and luster. Enamel was also widely used, particularly champlevé, cloisonné, basse-taille, and ronde bosse. Champlevé is enamel over a carved base, while cloisonné contains glass in cell walls made of wire. Basse-taille covers metal designs with translucent glass, and ronde bosse is a three-dimensional enamel.[xxxviii]

Hair Jewellery in the Victorian Era

Though jewellery made from hair existed before the 19^th century, it’s often associated with the Victorian period. Hair deteriorates much more slowly than the rest of the body, making tresses a symbol of constancy. Items made from hair were worn as memorial pieces, tokens of familial bonds or close friendships, and to mark milestones such as marriage.[xxxix]

Victorian hair jewellery ranged from elaborate gold and gemstone enhanced confections to homemade art. There are several ways to transform hair into jewellery. Palette work bound hair with adhesive to create flat sheets before going under glass, making decorative components. Gimp work wound strands around wires, forming twists and loops. Table work wove hair into tubes.[xl] Hair became a part of brooches, bracelets, earrings, necklaces, and more.

It's not hard finding hair jewellery from Victorian times in antique stores, Etsy, and other venues. Costumers who are able to, and want to add a personal touch to their accessories can make their own, using instructions from period sources. From 1850 onwards, the Godey’s Lady’s Book sometimes offered hair crafting tips.[xli] Searching ‘hairwork jewellery’ in the Internet Archive shows two 1860s how-to books on the subject.[xlii]

Mid-Victorian Intersection of Light and Jewels

The Industrial Revolution changed many aspects of daily life. Among these was improved indoor lighting, with gas lamps stronger than any candle. With brighter rooms came the desire to wear jewellery with greater sparkle. An increased interest in the science of light also bloomed during this time.

These factors intersected to create the old European diamond cut. Like the old mine cut, it features high tops, deep lower halves, and fifty-eight facets each. The old European cut however has a circular outline, allowing for an even distribution of brilliance within the jewel. The 1874 invention of the bruting machine allowed for greater precision in diamond cutting, further enhancing symmetry and brightness.

A related development was the boom of diamond mines in South Africa. Diamonds were discovered there as early as 1854. By 1869, prospectors flocked to the colony in the hopes of unearthing a fortune. Following this diamond rush was the 1886 discovery of gold fields, sparking another influx of prospectors. These precious resources promised staggering wealth to those who found them. They also gave rise to significant political strife and violence. The greatly-increased colonial and imperial interest in the area, particularly from the British and the Dutch, leading to a series of major armed conflicts that were, in part, both motivated and funded by access to diamonds and gold.[xliii]

These developments meant in the second half of the nineteenth century had a significant increase in the number of diamonds available for wealthy and middle-class buyers to enjoy. People from a wider range of Victorian society could now obtain more diamond jewellery than was previously possible.

Costumers who want a posh accent to their mid-Victorian attire should look for jewellery with diamond facsimiles. Both old mine and old European cuts were worn during this time. Search for round or cushion shaped stones cut for internal brilliance. Sticklers for period accuracy may want to wear stones with yellowish tints, often present in South African diamonds.[xliv]

Archeological Revival

The Regolini-Galassi tomb was opened in 1836. Between 1840 and 1850, Italian jewelers Fortunato Pio and Alessandro Castellani were permitted to examine the Etruscan designs and how they were made.[xlv] Gold with granulation, beading, filigree, and other elements inspired from the findings appeared in Victorian jewellery from the 1850s, and remained through the end of the century.[xlvi]

Other motifs used in this style included die stamped metal,[xlvii] cameos, and intaglios.[xlviii] These Greco-Roman elements didn’t just tie into archeological revival trend. They also overlapped with the still ongoing love for renaissance style jewellery, making these designs multitaskers of a sort. Other historical nods included a passion for ancient coins in the 1880s, with fobs, necklaces, and other pieces adorned with coins, or die stamped imitations.[xlix]

Arts and Crafts

The seeds of the arts and crafts movement started around 1860 as a reaction against industrialization. The movement got more widespread attention from the 1880s onward, and continued into the 20^th century. Proponents of arts and crafts believed that art mass produced by machine was more than poorly made; it dulled society and culture. [l]

Once more people turned to historical influences, this time medieval. Arts and crafts proponents looked less at appearance and more at creation. To capture the spirit of medieval workers, artisans should be both designer and creator, to perform much of the labor themselves rather than delegate.[li]

The arts and crafts movement had no single ideal or leadership, allowing room for diverse aesthetics. Common threads for arts and crafts jewellery include inspiration from nature, and turning away from costly materials like diamonds in favor of inexpensive components like glass.[lii] Costumers who are able to, can get into the spirit of the movement by trying their own hands at making jewellery, using beautiful and affordable materials such as beads and wires.

Art Nouveau

Art nouveau appeared around 1880 and stretched past the Edwardian age. While it borrowed ideas from the arts and crafts movement, what set art nouveau apart was its absence of historical call-backs.[liii] The aesthetic turned to nature and fantasy. Artistic impressions of flowers, birds, butterflies, dragonflies were typical.

Unfortunately, the same imperialist systems which uncovered diamond mines in Brazil and South Africa also influenced Art Nouveau designs. Ethereal, female beings like mermaids and fairies were common motifs of the aesthetic.[liv] These creatures were also coded white. Costumers committed to vintage fashion, not vintage values may wish to modify or skip these elements.

Embellishments favored pearls, opals, moonstones, and lapis lazuli over diamonds, sapphires, rubies, and emeralds. Enamel was also widely used, including champlevé, cloisonné, and basse-taille. The technique of plique-à-jour, where light flows through enamel like a stained-glass window, was especially prized.[lv]

Costumers seeking art nouveau jewellery will want to keep a few key traits in mind. One of art nouveau’s signatures is curving, sinuous lines, also called whiplash lines. They appear in everything from vines to butterfly wings to cloisonné walls. Gemstones served as accents to designs, rather than the main focus.[lvi] When they did appear, they were most often pastels and cool tones.[lvii]

Conclusion

Given enough time, what is old becomes new again. People throughout the Georgian and Victorian eras looked to older periods to inspire contemporary looks. People today still turn to the past for fashion and accessory ideas, be it historybounding, vintage style or recreating a museum piece. What was beautiful then is still eye catching now.

Nature, as with historical influences, serves as a perennial source of designs. Rococo, the romantic era, art nouveau, and the present all turn to the natural world as fuel for ideas. Each period makes its own twist, focusing on certain elements like insects, or through stylized depictions.

New technologies are another constant source for jewellery styles. Sometimes the effects are indirect such as brighter lights increasing a demand for lustrous jewels. Other times the connection is more straightforward, such as innovations in gemstone cutting.

A fourth ever present element of jewellery is the desire for something beautiful despite limited means. People have always used workarounds to acquire lovely items on a modest budget. These can include using gold-toned metal, simulant or synthetic gemstones, or repurposing jewellery already in their possession. Others may wish to take extra steps and craft their own jewellery, using period or period inspired looks and techniques. No matter what your vision is, you’re in good company, both then and now.

A black and white Victorian photo of a Black woman in fine clothes and ample jewelry — Sissiretta Jones showcasing late Victorian jewellry

Citations

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2 ‘Lead Glass,’ Gemdat, <https://www.gemdat.org/gem-42921.html> Accessed 30 December 2022

3 ‘Search Results,’ Victoria & Albert Museum, <https://collections.vam.ac.uk/search/?page=1&page_size=50&id_category=THES48930&id_place=x28842&year_made_from=1700&year_made_to=1899> Accessed 30 December 2022

4 ‘Rhinestone,’ Encyclopaedia Britannica, <https://www.britannica.com/art/rhinestone> Accessed 30 December 2022

5 ‘History of Rhinestones,’ Rhinestones Unlimited, <https://rhinestonesu.com/history-of-rhinestones/#:~:text=Centuries%20ago%2C%20quartz%20pebbles%20with,aptly%20named%20the%20%22rhinestone.%22> Accessed 30 December 2022

6 Colored Stones (Gemological Institute of America, 2018) vol.4; pages 96-97

7 ‘Fob,’ Lang Antiques, <https://www.langantiques.com/university/fob-2/> Accessed 30 December 2022

8 ‘Fob Chain,’ Lang Antiques, <https://www.langantiques.com/university/fob-chain/> Accessed 30 December 2022

9 'Those Oft-Forgotten Pant Parts,' Levi Strauss & Co., (17 April 2014,) <https://www.levistrauss.com/2014/04/17/those-oft-forgotten-pant-parts/> Accessed 30 December 2022

10 ‘Sampson Mordan,’ Antiques in Oxford, <https://www.antiquesinoxford.co.uk/sampson-mordan> Accessed 30 December 2022

11 ‘37 Objects,’ Victoria & Albert Museum, <https://collections.vam.ac.uk/search/?page=1&page_size=50&kw_object_type=Vinaigrette>

12 Cheyney McKnight, 'Apple Watch Chatelaine || Historical Remix,' (YouTube, 29 October 2021,) <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-Yge15l2Zn4> Accessed 30 December 2022

13 ‘Georgian Jewellery: 1714-1837,’ Lang Antiques, <https://www.langantiques.com/university/georgian-jewellery-1714-1837/> Accessed 30 December 2022

14 ‘Pinchbeck,’ Chemistry Learner, <https://www.chemistrylearner.com/pinchbeck.html> Accessed 30 December 2022

15 ‘Shoe Buckle,’ Victoria & Albert Museum, <https://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O112622/shoe-buckle-unknown> Accessed 30 December 2022

16 ‘Parure,’ Lang Antiques <https://www.langantiques.com/university/parure/> Accessed 30 December 2022

17 Diamonds & Diamond Grading (Gemological Institute of America, 2002) vol 2: 1

18 GIA, Diamonds vol 9: 9

19 GIA, Diamonds vol 9: 7

20 ‘Learn About Style: Rococo,’ Victoria & Albert Museum, (The Internet Archive) <https://web.archive.org/web/20120321164500/http://www.vam.ac.uk/vastatic/microsites/british_galleries/bg_styles/Style04a/index.html> Accessed 30 December 2022

21. Morrison H. Heckscher, ‘American Rococo,’ The Metropolitan Museum of Art https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/roco/hd_roco.htm Accessed 2 January 2023

22. ‘Rococo,’ V&A, (The Internet Archive)

23. Sharon Bohannon, 'New Life for Revival Jewellery Styles: Archaeological, Renaissance and Egyptian,' The Gemological Institute of America, https://www.gia.edu/gia-news-research/new-life-revival-jewellery-styles-archaeological-renaissance-egyptian Accessed 2 January 2023

24. Cybele Gontar, 'Neoclassicism,' The Metropolitan Museum of Art https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/neoc_1/hd_neoc_1.htm Accessed 2 January 2023

25. ‘Neoclassical Jewellery,’ Lang Antiques https://www.langantiques.com/university/neoclassical-jewellery/ Accessed 2 January 2023

26. 'William Ponsonby, Viscount Duncannon, Future Second Earl of Bessborough,' The Metropolitan Museum of Art, https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/198376 Accessed 2 January 2023

27. Loren Dearborn, ‘Reproducing Miniature Portraits & Mourning Jewellery,’ Foundations Revealed, https://members.foundationsrevealed.com/2009/09/17/reproducing-miniature-portraits-and-mourning-jewelleryby-loren-dearborn/ Accessed 2 January 2023

28. ‘Miniature,’ Lang Antiques, https://www.langantiques.com/university/miniature/ Accessed 2 January 2023 Accessed 2 January 2023

29. Anika Burgess, 'The Intricate Craft of Using Human Hair for Jewellery, Art, and Decoration,' Atlas Obscura, https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/intricate-craft-art-human-hair-jewellery-mourning-braid-mutter-museum Accessed 2 January 2023

30. 'Secret Messages in Jewellery – The Lover’s Eye,' The Gemological Institute of America, https://4cs.gia.edu/en-us/blog/secret-messages-jewellery-lovers-eye/ Accessed 2 January 2023

31. ‘Lover’s Eye Miniature,’ Lang Antiques, https://www.langantiques.com/university/lovers-eye-miniature-2/ Accessed 2 January 2023

32. 'Romanticism,' Encyclopaedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/art/Romanticism Accessed 2 January 2023

33. Kathryn Calley Galitz, ‘Romanticism,’ The Metropolitan Museum of Art, https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/roma/hd_roma.htm Accessed 2 January 2023

34. Christopher Casey, '“Grecian Grandeurs and the Rude Wasting of Old Time”: Britain, the Elgin Marbles, and Post-Revolutionary Hellenism,' Foundations, (The Internet Archive) https://web.archive.org/web/20090513053304/http://ww2.jhu.edu/foundations/?p=8 Accessed 2 January 2023

35. ibid

36. Bohannon, 'Revival Jewellery Styles,' GIA

37. 'Inspiration for Gothic & Renaissance Revival Style Jewels,' JCK Magazine, https://web.archive.org/web/20150704124124/http://www.jckonline.com/1998/02/01/inspiration-gothic-renaissance-revival-style-jewels Accessed 2 January 2023

38. ibid

39. Allison C. Meier, 'How Victorians Mourned Loved Ones Through Hair Jewellery,' Art & Object, https://www.artandobject.com/news/how-victorians-mourned-loved-ones-through-hair-jewellery Accessed 2 January 2023

40. Burgess, 'Human Hair Jewellery,' Atlas Obscura

41. 'Victorian Hair Jewellery,' Victoriana Magazine, http://www.victoriana.com/Jewellery/victorian-hair-jewellery.html Accessed 2 January 2023

42. ‘Search,’ The Internet Archive, https://archive.org/search.php?query=subject%3A%22Hairwork+jewellery%22 Accessed 2 January 2023

43. 'Diamonds, gold, and imperialist intervention (1870–1902)' Encyclopaedia Britannica, <https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/Gold-mining> Accessed 08-19-2023

43. GIA, Diamonds vol 13: 10

44. Bohannon, 'Revival Jewellery Styles,' GIA

45. 'Revival Style Jewels,' JCK

46. Bohannon, 'Revival Jewellery Styles,' GIA

47. 'Revival Style Jewels,' JCK

48. Beth Carver Wees, 'Century American Jewellery,' The Metropolitan Museum of Art, https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/ajew/hd_ajew.htm Accessed 2 January 2023

49. Encyclopaedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/art/Arts-and-Crafts-movement Accessed 2 January 2023

50. Monica Obinski,'The Arts and Crafts Movement in America,' The Metropolitan Museum of Art, https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/acam/hd_acam.htm Accessed 2 January 2023

51. ibid

52. Cybele Gontar, 'Art Nouveau,' The Metropolitan Museum of Art. https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/artn/hd_artn.htm Accessed 2 January 2023

53. Sharon Bohannon, 'A Glittering Garden: A Menagerie of Designs from Mother Nature,' Gemological Institute of America, https://www.gia.edu/gia-news-research/glittering-garden-menagerie-designs-mother-nature Accessed 2 January 2023

54. 'Art Nouveau Engagement Rings: How to Get the Style,' The Gemological Institute of America, https://4cs.gia.edu/en-us/blog/art-nouveau-engagement-rings-get-the-style/ Accessed 2 January 2023

55. ‘Art Nouveau Jewellery,’ The Gemological Institute of America, https://4cs.gia.edu/en-us/blog/art-nouveau-jewellery/ Accessed 2 January 2023

56. ‘Art Nouveau Engagement Rings,’ GIA

[i] GIA Diamonds Ch9 p6

[ii] https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/paste

[iii] https://www.gemdat.org/gem-42921.html

[iv] https://collections.vam.ac.uk/search/?page=1&page_size=50&id_category=THES48930&id_place=x28842&year_made_from=1700&year_made_to=1899

[v] https://www.britannica.com/art/rhinestone

[vi] https://rhinestonesu.com/history-of-rhinestones/#:~:text=Centuries%20ago%2C%20quartz%20pebbles%20with,aptly%20named%20the%20%22rhinestone.%22

[vii] Colored Stones (Gemological Institute of America, 2018) vol.4: 96-97

[viii] https://www.langantiques.com/university/fob-2/

[ix] https://www.levistrauss.com/2014/04/17/those-oft-forgotten-pant-parts/

[x] https://www.antiquesinoxford.co.uk/sampson-mordan